Hawaiian Diaspora: Manaʻo on the Historical Migration Waves of Kānaka ʻŌiwi
Author's Note:
This article represents my personal reflections and inferences as a kānaka ʻōiwi examining the historical waves of Hawaiian diaspora through a contemporary Hawaiian lens. Drawing from moʻolelo shared within my ʻohana and broader Hawaiian community, as well as my own lived experience as part of the diaspora, this piece offers one Hawaiian perspective on the trials and tribulations faced by our people across different migration periods.
This is not intended as scholarly discourse, but rather as an opinion piece exploring how kānaka ʻōiwi have navigated the overwhelming external changes brought by continuous cultural globalization and colonization. The interpretations and connections presented here reflect my understanding of our collective journey as a lāhui, informed by both historical awareness and the wisdom passed down through our communities.
I offer these thoughts with deep respect for the diverse experiences within our diaspora and with the hope that they contribute to ongoing conversations about our identity, resilience, and connection to our ancestral homeland.
What is the Hawaiian Diaspora?
The Hawaiian diaspora represents over two centuries of kānaka ʻōiwi movement beyond their ancestral homeland, creating vibrant communities worldwide while maintaining deep cultural connections to Hawaiʻi. This historical timeline examines four distinct waves of migration, each driven by different forces but united by the resilience and cultural preservation of Native Hawaiian communities.
Key Takeaways:
Four distinct migration periods from 1800s to present day
Over 300,000 kānaka ʻōiwi currently live outside Hawaiʻi
Cultural preservation remains central to diaspora communities
Economic colonialism drives contemporary displacement
Hawaiian sovereignty context essential to understanding migration patterns
Introduction
The story of the Hawaiian diaspora is one of resilience, adaptation, and cultural preservation spanning over two centuries. From the first kānaka ʻōiwi sailors who ventured beyond their island home in the early 1800s to the contemporary families leaving due to economic pressures, each wave of migration tells a unique story of both loss and connection.
Understanding this history requires recognizing the ongoing sovereignty of the Hawaiian Kingdom and the illegal nature of the U.S. occupation that began in 1893. The diaspora patterns we see today are direct results of colonial policies designed to de-nationalize kānaka ʻōiwi and disconnect them from their ancestral lands and governance systems.
This historical examination traces four distinct periods of Hawaiian diaspora, exploring the forces that drove these movements and their lasting impact on both the Hawaiian Kingdom and the Native Hawaiian communities that formed beyond their shores.
Period 1: Post-Contact Early Migrations (1800s-1850s)
The Maritime Pioneers and Ocean Connections
Timeline Overview:
1810s-1820s: First documented kānaka ʻōiwi sailors on foreign vessels
1820s-1830s: Educational migrations to New England
1840s-1850s: Increased movement following the Māhele and early colonial pressures
The earliest Hawaiian diaspora began with the moananuiākea itself. Kānaka ʻōiwi, already master navigators and seafarers with centuries of Pacific voyaging tradition, quickly adapted to Western maritime industries following their contact with Europeans in 1778. By the 1810s, Hawaiian men were serving aboard whaling ships, trading vessels, and merchant marines, their exceptional seamanship skills making them highly sought after by foreign captains.
Early Hawaiian Life, Waʻa. Hawaiʻi State Archives.
This maritime expertise represented a continuation of traditional Hawaiian ocean knowledge, adapted to new vessels and trade routes. Native Hawaiian sailors played a crucial role as crew members on Pacific trading expeditions, maintaining their deep connection to the ocean while establishing the first Hawaiian communities in ports across the Pacific.
The Educational Pioneers and Cultural Disruption
Perhaps the most documented early migrants were the young Hawaiian men sent to New England for Western education. The most famous of these was Henry ʻŌpūkaha'ia, who arrived in New Haven, Connecticut in 1809. His story, though ending tragically with his death from typhus in 1818, inspired the first Christian missionaries to Hawaiʻi and established a pattern of educational migration that would continue for decades.
Memorial of Henry ʻŌpūkaha'ia at Kawaiahaʻo Church, Honolulu. Hawaiʻi State Archives.
Between 1820 and 1840, dozens of young Hawaiian men traveled to institutions like the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut, and Andover Theological Seminary. These early educational migrants faced immense cultural displacement and were often used as tools in the colonial project to "civilize" their people. However, many also served as crucial cultural bridges, translating between Hawaiian and Western worldviews while maintaining their Hawaiian identity.
The Māhele and Forced Displacement
The period following the Māhele of 1848 saw increased outmigration as traditional land tenure systems were deliberately dismantled under the pressure of foreign advisors. Many kānaka ʻōiwi, unable to navigate the new Western legal frameworks designed to favor foreign interests, or lacking the capital to purchase their ancestral lands, found themselves displaced from their ʻāina (land).
Hale pili. Hawaiʻi State Archives.
Hale pili. Hawaiʻi State Archives.
This was not accidental but part of a systematic effort to separate kānaka ʻōiwi from their land base and weaken the Hawaiian Kingdom. Some sought opportunities in California during the Gold Rush, while others joined the growing maritime workforce, driven by economic necessity rather than opportunity.
Period 2: Late 1800s-Early 1900s Middle Period
Illegal Occupation and Systematic De-nationalization
Timeline Overview:
1893: Illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom
1898: Illegal annexation to the United States
1900-1920: Establishment of continental U.S. Hawaiian communities under territorial occupation
1893. Showing Bluejackets of U.S.S. Boston occupying above Arlington Hotel grounds. January 17, 1893. Commander Lucien Young, U.S.N. in command of troops, Bank of Hawaii site. Formerly site of home of High Chief Abner Paki, childhood home of Liliuokalani & Bernice Pauahi-Bishop. Hawaiʻi State Archives.
The illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1893 and subsequent illegal annexation in 1898 created a new category of Hawaiian diaspora - political refugees and those seeking to escape the systematic oppression of the illegal territorial government. This period saw the first substantial Hawaiian communities forming in the continental U.S., particularly in California, as kānaka ʻōiwi sought to maintain their cultural identity away from direct colonial control.
Post-Overthrow Political Displacement
Following the illegal overthrow, many kānaka ʻōiwi found themselves criminalized and marginalized in their homeland. Some aliʻi and their supporters left for the continental U.S. to escape political persecution, while others sought economic opportunities denied to them under the new colonial regime.
The illegal establishment of the Territory of Hawaiʻi in 1900 began the systematic process of de-nationalizing kānaka ʻōiwi, forcing them to become "American citizens" without their consent. This forced citizenship created complex identity challenges for Hawaiian diaspora communities, who maintained their Hawaiian national identity while navigating American legal systems.
Kamehameha School. Boysʻ Group Photo. Glass Negatives. Hawaiʻi State Archives.
De-nationalization Policies and Cultural Preservation
The territorial government implemented policies specifically designed to de-nationalize kānaka ʻōiwi and erase Hawaiian identity. These included:
Banning Hawaiian language in schools
Criminalizing traditional religious practices
Promoting American patriotism and values
Economic policies that favored foreign settlers over kānaka ʻōiwi
As cultural practices retreated within and into the home, it is certain that those kānaka who left Hawaiʻi for better opportunities brought these practices and beliefs with them. Enshrined in the Ea of their identity as Hawaiian subjects, where the Kingdom government was abolished, was left a nation within a nation.
Military Service and Perceived Benefits
The early 1900s saw increased Hawaiian participation in U.S. military service, often seen as a pathway to respect and economic opportunity denied in the occupied territory. This created new diaspora communities around military bases, though service came at the cost of participating in the very system that had illegally occupied their homeland.
Early Community Formation and Cultural Preservation
By 1920, significant Hawaiian communities had formed in greater Los Angeles, San Francisco, and other West Coast cities. These communities established the first continental U.S. Hawaiian organizations, including cultural clubs and mutual aid societies that worked to preserve the Hawaiian language, customs, and identity away from territorial suppression.
The 1920 U.S. Census recorded over 2,000 kānaka ʻōiwi living in the continental U.S., though this number likely undercounted the actual population due to racial classification issues and the complexity of Hawaiian identity under colonial rule.
Period 3: 1970s-90s Modern Diaspora
The Illegal Statehood Generation and Cultural Renaissance
Timeline Overview:
1959: Illegal statehood imposed on Hawaiʻi
1970s: Hawaiian Renaissance begins
1980s-90s: Major continental U.S. migration wave
The illegal imposition of statehood in 1959 fundamentally changed the nature of the Hawaiian diaspora. This period coincided with rapid tourism development and military expansion in Hawaiʻi that displaced many kānaka ʻōiwi families from their traditional communities, while simultaneously creating new economic pressures that drove outmigration.
Moana Hotel. Waikīkī. Hawaiʻi State Archives.
The Military-Industrial Complex and Hawaiian Families
Military service became a major pathway for the Hawaiian diaspora during this period, as the U.S. military expanded its presence in Hawaiʻi and recruited heavily from local communities. Many kānaka ʻōiwi families established permanent roots near military bases across the continental United States, creating substantial Hawaiian communities in places like San Diego, Norfolk, and Colorado Springs.
While military service provided economic opportunities, it also represented a complex relationship with the occupying power, as kānaka ʻōiwi served in the military of the nation that had illegally occupied their homeland.
Educational Migration and Professional Displacement
The civil rights era opened new educational and professional opportunities for kānaka ʻōiwi in the continental U.S. Universities actively recruited Hawaiian students, and many remained after graduation to pursue careers in fields with limited opportunities in occupied Hawaiʻi. This brain drain became a significant concern for Hawaiian communities, as the most educated members were systematically drawn away from the islands.
The Hawaiian Renaissance and Diaspora Connections
Paradoxically, the Hawaiian Renaissance of the 1970s both encouraged cultural pride and facilitated diaspora. While the movement strengthened Hawaiian identity and challenged colonial narratives, it also created networks and resources that helped diaspora communities maintain their cultural connections.
Hawaiian cultural centers, hula hālau, and ʻōlelo Hawaiʻi classes began appearing in continental U.S. cities, often led by diaspora community members who had maintained their cultural knowledge despite geographic separation. These institutions became crucial for cultural preservation and transmission.
Community Establishment and Identity Maintenance
By 1990, the U.S. Census recorded over 138,000 kānaka ʻōiwi living outside Hawaiʻi, with the largest concentrations in California, Nevada, and Washington. These communities established permanent institutions including Hawaiian civic clubs, cultural organizations, and even Hawaiian-language immersion programs.
These diaspora communities often maintained stronger connections to traditional Hawaiian culture than many communities in Hawaiʻi itself, as they were forced to be more intentional about cultural preservation in non-Hawaiian environments.
Period 4: Contemporary Migrations (2020s)
The Housing Crisis and Economic Colonialism
Timeline Overview:
2020: COVID-19 pandemic begins
2020-2021: Remote work enables new migration patterns
2022-2024: Housing crisis intensifies outmigration
The most recent wave of Hawaiian diaspora represents a dramatic escalation of economic colonialism. Driven primarily by an unprecedented housing crisis and cost-of-living increases caused by outside speculation and tourism development, this migration differs significantly from previous waves in both its scale and urgency.
Economic Colonialism and Displacement
Unlike previous migrations driven by opportunity or political displacement, the current wave is primarily driven by economic violence. Median home prices in Hawaiʻi exceeding $800,000 and rental costs consuming 50-60% of medianhousehold income have made it impossible for many kānaka ʻōiwi families to remain in their ancestral homeland.
This displacement is not accidental but the result of deliberate policies that prioritize tourism revenue and outside investment over the housing needs of local families. The transformation of residential properties into vacation rentals and the influx of wealthy continental U.S. residents have created an artificial housing shortage that specifically targets working-class Hawaiian families.
Technology and Cultural Maintenance
The COVID-19 pandemic normalized remote work, creating new possibilities for maintaining Hawaiian employment while living elsewhere. This has enabled a different type of diaspora--one where cultural and economic connections to Hawaiʻi can be maintained more easily than in previous eras.
Social media, video calling, and digital cultural programming have encouraged diaspora communities to participate in Hawaiian cultural events, language classes, and community discussions in real-time, creating new forms of cultural connection across distance.
Contrast with Earlier Periods
Unlike the 1970s-90s migration, which was often permanent, contemporary migrants frequently maintain stronger ties to Hawaiʻi. Many contemporary migrants express intentions to return, viewing their continental U.S. residence as a temporary economic necessity rather than permanent relocation.
However, the scale and speed of displacement threaten to create a permanent diaspora majority, fundamentally altering the demographic and cultural landscape of the Hawaiian Islands.
Scale and Cultural Impact
Early estimates suggest this current wave may be the largest in Hawaiian history, with some communities reporting 20-30% population loss since 2020. The speed and scale of this migration have created urgent concerns about the cultural and demographic future of kānaka ʻōiwi communities in Hawaiʻi.
Modern Hawaiian Diaspora Communities
Today's Hawaiian diaspora communities represent a global network of cultural preservation and innovation. From the Hawaiian communities in the Pacific Northwest, Nevada, the East Coast and beyond, these communities maintain active connections to their ancestral homeland while creating new expressions of Hawaiian culture.
Contemporary diaspora communities utilize technology, cultural programming, and community organizations to maintain their Hawaiian identity while adapting to diverse geographic and cultural environments. These communities often serve as bridges between traditional Hawaiian culture and contemporary global contexts.
Frequently Asked Questions
What caused the Hawaiian diaspora?
Hawaiian diaspora has been caused by different factors across four historical periods: early maritime opportunities, political displacement following illegal overthrow, educational and military pathways, and contemporary economic colonialism driving housing displacement.
How many Native Hawaiians live outside Hawaii?
Current estimates suggest over 300,000 kānaka ʻōiwi live outside Hawaiʻi, with the largest concentrations in California, Nevada, Washington, and other Western states.
How do Hawaiian diaspora communities preserve culture?
Diaspora communities maintain Hawaiian culture through hula hālau, ʻōlelo Hawaiʻi classes, cultural centers, civic clubs, digital programming, and community organizations that connect them to Hawaiian traditions and others in the diaspora.
What is the relationship between the Hawaiian diaspora and sovereignty?
Hawaiian diaspora patterns directly result from colonial policies designed to separate kānaka ʻōiwi from their land base and weaken the Hawaiian Kingdom. Understanding diaspora requires recognizing ongoing Hawaiian sovereignty and the illegal nature of U.S. occupation.
Conclusion
The four waves of Hawaiian diaspora reveal a complex story of adaptation, survival, and cultural persistence in the face of ongoing colonialism. From the maritime pioneers of the 1800s to the contemporary families leaving due to economic violence, each generation has faced unique challenges while maintaining connections to their Hawaiian identity and ancestral homeland.
Understanding this history requires recognizing that the Hawaiian diaspora is not simply a story of migration and opportunity, but a direct result of colonial policies designed to separate kānaka ʻōiwi from their land base and weaken the Hawaiian Kingdom. The illegal occupation that began in 1893 continues today, manifesting in economic policies that prioritize outside interests over the housing and cultural needs of kānaka ʻōiwi.
The tools and methods for maintaining cultural connections have evolved dramatically - from handwritten letters carried by ship to social media and video calls - but the fundamental human need for connection to ʻāina, culture, and lāhui (nation) remains constant. As we look toward the future, the lessons from these four waves of migration offer both warnings about the forces that drive displacement and hope about the resilience of Hawaiian culture and identity across time and distance.
The mana of kānaka ʻōiwi - our inherent spiritual power and cultural strength - persists wherever our people go, creating new forms of cultural expression and community while maintaining the deep connections to our ancestral homeland that define us as a people.
Glossary of Hawaiian Terms
ʻĀina - Land, earth; that which feeds
Aliʻi - Chief, ruler, hawaiian cultural ruling class
Hālau - meeting place or group for traditional hawaiian education (especially for hula)
Kānaka ʻōiwi - Native Hawaiian people, descendants of aboriginal people of the Hawaiian Islands
Lāhui - Nation, people, the hawaiian nation
Māhele - 1848 great land division by Kamehameha III, Kauikeaouli
Mana - Spiritual power, personal divine force, authority
Moana - Ocean, open sea
Moananuiākea - Great expanse of open ocean, the pacific ocean
ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi - Hawaiian language
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